1. Razumevanje sheme socialne izolacije

1.1. Foundations of Schema Theory: Understanding Early Maladaptive Patterns

According to Beck's cognitive perspective, mental concepts such as assumptions, schemas, memories, beliefs, goals, expectations, plans, tasks and cognitive biases influence people's behavioural and emotional responses to the social environment (Beck, 1967; Ahmadpanah et al., 2017). Schemas are considered cognitive structures that encode and respond to environmental stimuli; they can be both positive and negative, as well as early and later schemas. (Sfeir et al., 2025). Every non-adaptive schema has a corresponding adaptive schema (see Elliott's polarity theory, Elliott & Lassen, 1997). Following Erikson's (1950) psychosocial stages, successful resolution of each stage results in an adaptive schema, whereas failure to resolve the situation results in a maladaptive schema. (Young et al., 2003).

As Sfeir points out, building on Beck's cognitive schema model, Young extended the model to study early maladaptive schemas that lead to distorted thoughts about the world, self and others. (Young,1999; Sfeir et al., 2025). Schema theory emphasises the relationship between cognitive and emotional processes and behaviour change. In this theory, early maladaptive schemas are a central concept originating from adverse childhood events. (Sfeir et al., 2025). Early maladaptive schemas can be understood as filters that determine how we anticipate, order and interpret our environment, and they emerge as adaptations to negative childhood experiences. (Bär et. al., 2023). Maladaptive schemas arise from basic emotional needs not being met in childhood.

In other words, Sfeir explains that Young built on Beck's cognitive schema theory to examine early negative thinking patterns called maladaptive schemas, which affect how we think about ourselves, others, and the world. Schema theory focuses on how our thoughts and feelings are connected to changes in our behaviour. These early maladaptive schemas often result from difficult experiences in childhood.These schemas can be considered filters that shape how we see and understand our surroundings. They usually develop as a way to cope with adverse childhood experiences. Maladaptive schemas often form because basic emotional needs weren't met when we were young.

Young and colleagues postulated five basic human emotional needs that are universal:

Secure attachments to others (includes safety, stability, nurturance, and acceptance);
Autonomy, competence, and sense of identity;
Freedom to express valid needs and emotions;
Spontaneity and play;
Realistic limits and self-control.

Everyone experiences these needs, although some individuals feel them more intensely than others. A psychologically balanced person can healthily fulfil these fundamental emotional needs. The interplay between a child's natural temperament and their early surroundings often leads to the frustration, rather than satisfaction, of these essential needs. Additional factors beyond the early environment also significantly influence the development of schemas. The emotional temperament of the child is particularly crucial. As most parents quickly notice, each child possesses a unique and distinct “character” or temperament from birth. Some children are more irritable, others are more reserved, and some exhibit more aggression. A substantial amount of research supports the significance of the biological foundations of personality. (Young et al., 2003).

In other words, Young and colleagues identified five essential emotional needs that all humans share:

1. Forming safe and secure connections with others;

2. Having independence, capability, and a clear sense of self;

3. Being free to express genuine needs and emotions;

4. Enjoying spontaneity and play;

5. Understanding realistic boundaries and self-control.

While everyone has these needs, some people feel them more strongly. A mentally healthy person can meet these needs in a balanced way. Often, a child's inborn temperament and early environment can lead to unmet needs. Besides early experiences, other factors also play a big role in shaping how these needs are met. A child's natural personality is vital; as many parents observe, every child has a unique temperament from birth. Some children may be more easily upset, others more shy, and some might be more aggressive. Research supports that biological aspects strongly influence personality.

Young's (1990, 1999) hypothesised that some of these patterns, which are mainly the result of toxic childhood experiences, could underlie personality disorders, milder character problems and many chronic disorders. Early maladaptive schemas are self-defeating emotional and cognitive patterns that begin early in our development and recur throughout life. Young believes that maladaptive behaviour develops in response to schemas. Thus, behaviour is determined by schemas but is not part of schemas. (Young et al., 2003). Early maladaptive schemas include cognitions, memories, emotions and patterns, and these schemas contribute to maladaptive behaviour. Suppose someone was abandoned, abused or rejected as a child. In that case, their schemas will be activated in adulthood after being triggered by events that may seem similar to the traumatic experiences they had in childhood. When one of these circuits is activated, they experience strong negative emotions such as sadness, shame, fear or anger. (Young et al., 2003; Sfeir et al., 2025).

However, as Young points out, not all patterns are based on childhood trauma or maltreatment. An individual can develop an addiction/incompetence schema without experiencing any childhood trauma and be fully protected in childhood. Although not all schemas originate from trauma, all are destructive, and most are caused by harmful experiences that are repeated regularly. The impact of all these related toxic experiences is cumulative, and together, they lead to the emergence of a complete schema. The dysfunctional nature of schemas is usually most apparent later in life, when the individual continues to perpetuate their schemas in interactions with other people, even though their perceptions are no longer accurate. Early maladaptive schemas and the maladaptive ways in which the individual learns to cope with them are often the basis for chronic symptoms such as anxiety, depression, substance abuse and psychosomatic disorders. Schemas are dimensional, meaning they have different levels of severity and prevalence—the more severe the schema, the greater the number of situations that trigger it. (Young et al., 2003).

In other words, Young suggests that harmful patterns from difficult childhood experiences can lead to personality disorders and other issues later in life. These patterns, called early maladaptive schemas, shape how people think and behave, often causing negative emotions when triggered by similar situations in adulthood. Not all schemas come from trauma, but many are damaging and can contribute to problems like anxiety and depression as individuals repeat these patterns in their interactions with others.

Early maladaptive schemas

Early maladaptive schemas have been shown in research to play an important role in addiction, obsessive/compulsive disorders, depression and anxiety. (Ahmadpanah et al., 2017; Griffiths, 2014; Kwak & Lee, 2015; Platts et al., 2005).

Young and colleagues' 'schema therapy', which treats individuals with profound and chronic psychological disorders previously considered difficult to treat, comprises 18 early maladaptive schemas divided into five schema domains.

Domain I, "Disconnection and Rejection", comprises unmet needs such as safety and empathy. A typical family background is detached, cold, rejecting, aloof, lonely, explosive, unpredictable or abusive. Individuals with this schema from this area cannot securely attach to others, believing that they will not be able to receive stability, love or security. Adults with schemas from this domain tend to move rapidly from one self-destructive relationship to another or avoid close relationships altogether.

1. Abandonment/Instability schema, manifested by expecting others to abandon you.

2. Mistrust/Abuse schema manifested by expecting others to harm.

3. Emotional Deprivation schema is manifested in the expectation that others will not be emotionally supportive.

4. Defectiveness/Shame schema is manifested by the belief that you are inferior and useless.

5. Social Isolation/Alienation schema is expressed in feeling different and isolated from others.

In other words, Domain I, "Disconnection and Rejection," includes unmet needs like safety and understanding. People from families that are distant, cold, or abusive often develop these schemas. They struggle to form secure attachments, believing they won't find stability or love. As adults, they may jump from one harmful relationship to another or avoid intimacy entirely.

1. Abandonment/Instability schema: Always expecting people to leave you.

2. Mistrust/Abuse schema: Always expecting others to hurt you.

3. Emotional Deprivation schema: Believing others won't support you emotionally.

4. Defectiveness/Shame schema: Feeling inferior and worthless.

5. Social Isolation/Alienation schema: Feeling different and alone.

Domain II, "Impaired Autonomy and Performance" disorder, is characterised by the inability to separate oneself from parental figures and to form who they are an independent personality. Individuals with this domain have either had overprotective parents or, on the contrary, parents who have failed to care for their needs. Typical family origins include wallowing, undermining of the child's self-esteem, overprotection and failure to strengthen the child to be able to function permanently outside the family.

6. Dependency/Incompetence scheme. The belief that one is incapable or incompetent to look after oneself.

7. Vulnerability to Harm or Disease. Exaggerated fear that something terrible will happen at any moment and that the person will not be able to prevent it.

8. Enmeshment/Undeveloped Self Schema. Excessive emotional involvement and closeness with significant others at the expense of full individualisation or normal social development.

9. Failure schema. The belief is that failure is inevitable and that one is entirely useless.

In other words, Domain II, "Impaired Autonomy and Performance," is about struggling to become independent and form a sense of self separate from parents. People in this domain might have experienced either overprotective parenting or neglect. These families can undermine a child's confidence, be overly protective, or fail to prepare the child to function outside the home.

6. Dependency/Incompetence schema: Believing you can't care for yourself.

7. Vulnerability to Harm or Disease: Constant fear that something terrible will happen and you can't stop it.

8. Enmeshment/Undeveloped Self-schema: Being too emotionally close to others, preventing personal growth.

9. Failure schema: Believing you're bound to fail and feel worthless.

Domain III is " Impaired Limits", where patterns include an inability to cooperate in social settings, make commitments, or follow the rules. Individuals are unable to control their impulses. A typical family background is characterised by permissiveness, excessive tolerance, lack of direction or a sense of superiority, rather than appropriate confrontation, discipline and limits on taking responsibility, cooperation and installation.

10. Entitlement/Grandiosity scheme. The belief that a person deserves special treatment.

11. Insufficient Self-Control/Self-Discipline. Difficulty in delaying gratification for the sake of a long-term goal.

Overemphasis on avoiding discomfort.

In other words, Domain III, "Impaired Limits," involves struggles with behaving correctly in social situations, making commitments, and following rules. People in this domain often can't control their impulses. They may have grown up in too lenient families, lacked guidance, or made them feel overly special instead of being taught responsibility and cooperation.

10. Entitlement/Grandiosity schema: Believing you deserve special treatment.

11. Insufficient Self-Control/Self-Discipline: Difficulty waiting for long-term benefits and wanting to avoid discomfort.

Domain IV, "Other-Directedness," involves prioritising other people's needs over your own to gain their approval/love. The typical family origin is based on conditional acceptance: children have to suppress essential aspects of their being to gain love, attention and appreciation.

12. Subjugation scheme. Suppression of one's own needs/emotions, one feels controlled by others.

13. Self-sacrifice scheme. Attention is focused on meeting the needs of others at the expense of self.

14. Approval/recognition-seeking schema. Excessive focus on receiving approval from others instead of developing self-reliance.

In other words, Domain IV, "Other-Directedness," is about putting others' needs before your own to earn their approval or love. Typically, this comes from families where children felt they had to hide parts of themselves to be loved and valued.

12. Subjugation schema: Ignoring your needs and emotions, feeling dominated by others.

13. Self-sacrifice schema: Prioritizing others' needs over your own.

14. Approval/recognition-seeking schema: Seeking others' approval instead of trusting yourself.

Domain V is "Overvigilance and Inhibition", which includes inhibiting and suppressing one's emotions and impulses. Rigid norms and values characterise it. These patterns reflect the unmet emotional needs of childhood. The typical origin is a grim, repressed, and strict childhood in which self-control and self-denial predominated over spontaneity and pleasure.

15. Negativity/Pessimism scheme. Extreme and constant focus on all that is harmful.

16. Emotional Inhibition scheme. The belief is that it is necessary to inhibit emotions to avoid being judged by others, feeling shame or losing control of one's impulses.

17. Unrelenting Standards/Hypercriticalness scheme. The belief is that achieving extremely high standards is necessary to avoid criticism.

18. Punitiveness scheme. The belief is that mistakes should be severely punished. This includes a tendency to be angry, intolerant, punitive, and impatient with people (including oneself). (Young et al., 2003; Young et al., 2006; Sfeir et al., 2025; Bär et. al., 2023; Ahmadpanah et. al., 2017).

In other words, Domain V, "Overvigilance and Inhibition," is about holding back and controlling emotions and impulses, guided by strict rules and values. This usually stems from a gloomy and strict upbringing where restraint was valued over fun and enjoyment.

15. Negativity/Pessimism schema: Focusing too much on potential dangers and negative outcomes.

16. Emotional Inhibition schema: Believing emotions must be controlled to avoid judgment, shame, or loss of control.

17. Unrelenting Standards/Hypercriticalness schema: You must meet very high standards to avoid criticism.

18. Punitiveness schema: Believing mistakes should be harshly punished, leading to anger and impatience with yourself and others.

All humans strive for connection, understanding, and growth, driven by a deep desire to be recognised. When these needs are hindered by deprivation, neglect, trauma, or loss, our longings intensify. We need to heal and evolve into our best selves, which can lead to a sense of vitality and renewed energy. Schema Therapy incorporates neurophysiology, highlighting that positive, safe relationships promote emotional regulation. The brain's ability to change, combined with a secure therapeutic relationship, offers the promise of fulfilment, transforming feelings of depression, anxiety, and loneliness while guiding us toward greater peace.

1.2. Social Isolation Schema

Toxic childhood experiences are the primary origin of early maladaptive schemas. The schemas that develop earlier and are the strongest usually originate in the family. To a large extent, the dynamics of the child's family are the dynamics of the child's entire early world. When individuals are in adult situations where early maladaptive schemas are activated, they usually experience drama from their childhood, usually with their parents. Other influences, such as peers, school, community groups and the surrounding culture, become increasingly important as the child matures and can also trigger the development of schemas. However, schemas developed later are usually not as standard. For example, social isolation is an example of a schema that generally emerges later in childhood or adolescence and may not reflect family dynamics. According to Young, the social isolation/exclusion schema is the feeling of being different or not fitting into the wider social world outside the family. Typically, individuals with this early maladaptive schema do not feel part of any group or community. (Young et al., 2003). In general, according to Young's early maladaptive schema psychotherapy framework, social isolation, as mentioned above, is grouped with other schemas based on one category or domain of unmet emotional needs - Disconnection and Rejection.

The Bay Area Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Center Schema explains how to identify and address social isolation. Persons haunted by social isolation feel separated and alienated from their environment throughout their lives. This is not just a temporary state of loneliness; it is a very painful pattern that permeates their existence, affecting how they perceive and interact with the world. The person consistently tells them that they do not belong, are fundamentally different, and will never really belong to any social group.

This scheme, which operates in the shadows, often goes unnoticed even by the person. People with this schema may appear sociable, even extroverts, well-liked, and have a wide circle of friends, but internally feel isolated, struggling with a sense of loneliness that social activities seem unable to alleviate. This painful pattern is reinforced as they strive for connection, creating a paradox in which trying to belong to a group only deepens their sense of isolation.

A closer look at the origins of social isolation reveals that its seeds are often planted early in life, but can emerge at different stages and are shaped by a complex interaction between personal experiences and societal structures.

Interactions within the family environment, where a deficiency in belonging can alienate individuals from crucial social support.
Early life experiences, especially those related to parents who feel disappointment or inadequacy, can embed a profound sense of not measuring up, paving the way for increased social exclusion.
The teenage years and cultural influences further mould the social environment by deepening feelings of loneliness or providing a sense of community and belonging.

The impact of childhood. Feelings of social isolation can begin to take hold in childhood, as negative experiences such as bullying, exclusion, and mistreatment from classmates reinforce the pattern of isolation. In the absence of peer support, children can develop a chronic sense of isolation that can persist into adulthood. This early peer interaction is crucial as it influences immediate social experiences and affects the persistence of social isolation patterns in later life. Family relationships with siblings are also clearly meaningful. A supportive family can foster a sense of belonging and acceptance, while a lack of recognition from a cold and toxic family can create alienation.

Adolescence. Adolescence is a time of identity and independence exploration, which can be turbulent. Inappropriate social support reinforces psychosocial development at this stage, while social relationships act as a support against alienation. As we move into adulthood, isolation problems develop as the need for belonging and acceptance remains. The impact of these needs is visible in personal well-being and professional or academic success.

Cultural and societal factors. The impact of social isolation is closely linked to cultural and societal factors. Laws and policies against marginalisation and discrimination can strengthen social ties and reduce feelings of isolation. The World Health Organisation is working to tackle this problem, focusing on vulnerable groups such as older people. Research shows that women and people with lower levels of education or chronic illness suffer more from the cognitive effects of isolation, pointing to gender and educational differences in these issues.

The interaction between cognitive performance and social isolation is a stark reminder of the pervasive consequences of feelings of disconnection. Those with better cognitive performance are associated with more stable levels of social isolation over time. Older adults, in particular, are prone to loneliness, a key indicator of social isolation, which underlines the importance of societal support and inclusion for this demographic.

In other words, the social isolation schema often originates from negative childhood experiences and can cause individuals to feel disconnected from others throughout their lives. Although they may seem sociable on the outside, those with this schema often feel like they do not belong to any group, leading to deep feelings of loneliness. This sense of isolation can be shaped by family dynamics, peer interactions, and societal influences, and is further complicated by factors like gender and education, highlighting the need for support and community to combat feelings of disconnection.

1.3. Recognising symptoms of social isolation

These symptoms can be emotional, behavioural or cognitive, and understanding them is the first step in combating the effects of the scheme. Individuals struggling with social isolation may outwardly appear to be doing fine, but inwardly, they are struggling with feelings of loneliness and disconnection that contradict their social behaviour. Their efforts to connect with others can paradoxically lead to a widening gap between them and the sense of belonging they seek. Even though a wide social circle may surround them, they may still feel that others do not understand them. Some signs of social isolation include:

Experiencing loneliness and detachment even when surrounded by others;
Finding it difficult to create profound and significant relationships with people;
Feeling misinterpreted or not genuinely recognised by those around you;
Maintaining an active social circle yet still grappling with feelings of isolation;
Acknowledging these indicators is crucial for effectively tackling social isolation.

The signs that someone is silently struggling with a social isolation scheme:

Emotional indicators. Emotional indicators, often the most substantial signs of social isolation, are characterised by feelings of loneliness, sadness and sometimes even hopelessness. Individuals with this pattern may feel lonely and isolated, preferring loneliness to the eventual exhaustion of relationships. Loneliness is not just being alone; the perception of a gap between desired and actual interpersonal relationships leads to emotional emptiness, which can manifest as sadness, emptiness or hopelessness. These feelings are often accompanied by hypersensitivity to the reactions of others and a tendency to self-criticism, which can develop into anger or depression. Feelings of loneliness correlate with a perceived lack of social support, and these emotions can be reinforced by anxiety and self-consciousness, creating a vicious circle that is difficult to break.

Recognising these emotional indicators is essential to understanding and addressing social isolation. The internal emotional landscape of an individual with a pattern of social isolation can be turbulent, influenced by a complex interplay of factors that can exacerbate feelings of disconnection and inhibit their ability to form meaningful relationships.

Behavioural signs. Insight into the presence of a social isolation pattern can be gained from behavioural cues. These behaviours often include:

Avoiding social events;
Preferring solitude;
Not participating in organised group activities;
Rarely engaging in social interaction;
Showing disinterest in community participation;
Changing routines to avoid social engagement;
Masking avoidance with efforts to appear attractive or likeable, driven by fear of rejection;
Loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities;
Poor self-care;
These behaviours reflect the emotional distress caused by social isolation.

In addition, the emotional toll of prolonged isolation can lead to aggression, lethargy, energy depletion in social settings, and sleep disturbances.

For older adults, smaller social networks or fewer interactions underline the physical isolation accompanying social isolation. Avoiding social interaction out of loneliness can have serious consequences, leading to depression and suicidal thoughts.

Cognitive patterns. Cognitive patterns associated with the social isolation schema are essential in maintaining feelings of alienation. Individuals may experience:

Pretending to fit in, masking their true selves from the belief that their authentic self is "unusual" or facing rejection, which reinforces a strong inner critic;
Preoccupation with being seen as a burden;
A tendency to distrust others for no tangible reason;
These patterns contribute to perpetuating feelings of social isolation and alienation.

Feelings of insignificance in social interactions and the negative feedback loop of not identifying with a group reinforce the isolating cognitive schema. Despite having social connections, individuals with an isolating schema may perceive themselves as isolated due to a lack of emotional closeness, support and a persistent feeling of being an outsider.

Understanding these cognitive patterns is essential to recognise and address the underlying beliefs that feed the isolation schema. Negative self-talk, mistrust and feelings of insignificance can shape an individual's perception of their social world, making them feel disconnected even amid social interactions.

However, by adopting specific strategies, individuals can learn to cope with their isolation schema and eventually overcome it by finding meaningful social connections. Joining clubs, participating in work social events and maintaining friendly behaviour are just some methods individuals can use to practice social engagement. Building confidence by setting small, achievable goals for social interactions can also help individuals with social isolation reduce feelings of isolation in work and school environments. (Bay Area Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Center Schema, 2025).

In other words, recognizing the symptoms of social isolation is essential for addressing its impact, as these signs can be emotional, behavioral, or cognitive. Individuals may appear socially engaged but still feel lonely and disconnected, struggling to form deep relationships while battling feelings of sadness and self-criticism. Common indicators include avoiding social events, feeling misunderstood, and holding negative beliefs about oneself, which can perpetuate feelings of isolation; however, with awareness and proactive steps, such as joining groups and setting small social goals, individuals can work towards overcoming these challenges and building meaningful connections.

1.4. Ostracism

The term ostracism is used in connection with rejection, exclusion, and ignoring. Being rejected, excluded, or simply ignored is a painful experience. Ostracism researchers have shown its powerful negative consequences (Williams, 2007), and sociologists have referred to such experiences as social death (Bauman,1992). (Steele et al., 2014). Ostracism (being ignored and excluded) thwarts basic psychological needs fundamental for human survival. As a painful experience, ostracism has various mental health, cognitive and behavioural consequences. (Chen et al., 2025). People vary greatly in their responses to being ignored and excluded by others (i.e., ostracism). Based on previous research, responses to ostracism are typically classified as prosocial, antisocial, and withdrawal behaviour. (Kip et al., 2025).

Assumptions of the Psychobiological Model conceptually align with those of the social-psychological Temporal Need Threat Model of Ostracism (Williams, 2009). The Temporal Need Threat Model postulates that social ostracism threatens the fundamental human needs for belongingness, control, meaningful existence, and self-esteem. Acute ostracism, an isolated experience, is painful (Eisenberger et al., 2003) and evokes negative emotions (Rudert & Greifeneder, 2016). Chronic ostracism, that is, repeated experiences of ostracism, supposedly causes long-lasting depressive symptoms. More specifically, chronic ostracism depletes psychological resources, which eventually leads to feelings of helplessness, alienation, and worthlessness. Taken together, both the Psychobiological Model and the Temporal Need Threat Model hold that (chronic) ostracism poses a significant risk factor for the development of depression. Theoretical models in both clinical (Psychobiological Model of Social Rejection and Depression) as well as social psychology (Temporal Need Threat Model of Ostracism) have postulated that ostracism (i.e. being excluded and ignored by others) may foster the development of depressive symptomatology. However, stress generation models indicate that depression may also foster ostracism, as depressed individuals might be considered as burdensome by others. (Rudert et al., 2021).

Ostracism signals social separation, isolation, and loss; responses vary over time. Ostracism episodes as short as 2 minutes result in physiological pain responses, need threat, and emotional distress, followed by cognitive, emotional, motivational, and behavioural responses that either increase the likelihood of subsequent inclusion (at the cost of being socially pliable) or ensure further ostracism through aggression or solitude. Longer-term ostracism leads to resignation, accompanied by alienation, depression, helplessness, and feelings of unworthiness of attention by others. (Williams & Nida, 2022).

The temporal need-threat model proposed by Williams has served as the theoretical framework for much of the research on ostracism (see Figure 1). The model suggests that one's reaction to ostracism happens in three stages: an immediate, reflexive stage, a coping or reflective stage, and a long-term, resignation stage. (Williams & Nida, 2022).

Fig. 1.The temporal need-threat model (Williams & Nida, 2022)

In other words, ostracism, which includes feelings of rejection and exclusion, can have severe emotional and psychological effects on individuals. This painful experience threatens fundamental human needs, leading to negative responses that can manifest as either social withdrawal or aggressive behavior. Chronic ostracism can contribute to long-term depression and feelings of worthlessness, as it creates a cycle of isolation and emotional distress that can significantly impact mental health over time.

1.5. Distinguishing Social Isolation from Social Death

Many socially isolated individuals are not crying out loud for help. They have simply withdrawn from the meaningful social interactions and relationships, leading to feelings of isolation. Research (Baumeister & Leary, 1995) shows that the need to belong is a fundamental human drive. When people feel excluded, it triggers the same areas of the brain associated with physical pain. Chronic social isolation (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2014) can lead to depression, anxiety, and even early mortality. By failing to recognise social isolation and death, we allow its devastating effects to spread silently.

Social death and social isolation are two different but related social phenomena that impact individuals' sense of belonging, identity, and well-being in distinct ways. Understanding the distinction between social death and social isolation is important in recognising the effects of exclusion and disconnection on individuals. Socialisation is a fundamental part of human existence, shaping our identity, building relationships, and contributing to well-being. When we lose our social connections, whether through isolation or more extreme forms of exclusion, the consequences can be severe. Kralova (2015) highlights that social death occurs when society stops recognising a person’s identity due to extreme neglect, marginalisation, or institutionalisation. This concept is particularly relevant in contexts such as elderly care, imprisonment, or stigma-related exclusion, where individuals are stripped of their social identity and recognition.

On the other hand, Cacioppo & Cacioppo (2018) explain that social isolation refers to the absence of social interactions and meaningful connections, which can lead to emotional distress, loneliness, and negative health outcomes. Unlike social death, isolation does not necessarily involve societal rejection, but it can still result in profound psychological and physiological consequences. Table 1 clarifies the main differences between social isolation and social death while contrasting them with introversion. This distinction highlights that while social isolation and social death are harmful states of disconnection or exclusion, introversion is simply a personality trait that does not inherently lead to negative social consequences. It is important to recognize that introverts may prefer solitude or selective socializing without experiencing feelings of loneliness or exclusion (Cain, 2012).

Table 1: Social Isolation vs Social Death vs Being Introverted (Cain, 2012; Cacioppo, et al, 2018; Kralova, 2015)

Recognising the difference between these two damaging concepts is essential:

Addressing social death involves restoring the individual's social identity and reintegrating them into societal interactions. This can be achieved by acknowledging their personhood, involving them in decision-making processes, and encouraging meaningful engagements (Borgstrom, 2017);

In contrast, mitigating social isolation focuses on enhancing social connections through community programs, support groups, and technologies that facilitate communication, thereby improving mental and physical health outcomes (National Institute on Aging, 2023).

Being able to recognise signs of social isolation and death, we can prevent further deterioration of individuals' well-being. Indicators such as avoidance of social interactions, disengagement from daily activities, decline in health, and self-deprecating behaviour necessitate proactive measures to foster inclusion and support (Healthline, 2023).

One of the biggest challenges in tackling social isolation and death is that those affected rarely ask for help, even though it can take a toll on their mental, emotional, and physical well-being. The warning signs are often subtle and easily overlooked. These signs include:

Avoiding Social Interactions. A person experiencing social isolation or death may withdraw from friends, family, or colleagues, declining invitations or avoiding conversations. This is particularly evident in elderly individuals in nursing homes, those facing homelessness, or people with stigmatised identities (Králová, 2015);
Showing Signs of Disengagement. Declining participation in school, work, or community activities may indicate a deeper sense of detachment. Those who feel socially dead often lose motivation to engage because they feel invisible or unvalued by society (Králová, 2015);
Experiencing a Decline in Mental and Physical Health. Research shows that social isolation increases the risk of depression, anxiety, cognitive decline, and cardiovascular diseases (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2018). Individuals suffering from social death may experience even greater health risks, as their exclusion from society often leads to neglect in healthcare and support services;
Displaying Self-Deprecating Language or Extreme Self-Sufficiency. Some individuals adopt negative self-perceptions, believing they are unworthy of help or connection. Others may develop an excessive reliance on themselves to avoid the pain of rejection, reinforcing their exclusion from society (Králová, 2015; Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2018).

At all levels of the workplace, there are clear signs that an employee may be socially isolated (Jenkins, n.d.):

Sloppy Work. A noticeable decline in work quality, increased errors, or missed deadlines may signal that an employee is struggling with loneliness;
Lack of Learning and Development. Disinterest in personal or professional growth opportunities can be a red flag for isolation;
Change in Routine. Alterations in work habits, such as arriving late or leaving early, may indicate disengagement;
Stops Offering Input. A previously active participant becoming silent during meetings or discussions can be a sign of withdrawal;
Skips Social Gatherings: Consistently avoiding team events or informal gatherings may suggest feelings of isolation;
Negative Attitude. Exhibiting pessimism or increased irritability can be associated with loneliness;
Physical Symptoms. Complaints about health issues, such as headaches or fatigue, can sometimes be linked to emotional well-being;
Reduced Collaboration. Avoiding teamwork or preferring to work alone may indicate a sense of isolation;
Decreased Productivity. A drop in output or efficiency can be a manifestation of underlying loneliness;
Withdrawal from Decision-Making. Reluctance to participate in decisions or share opinions can reflect feelings of disconnection.
Jenkins highlights that these signs may be subtle, and it's crucial for leaders and colleagues to be attentive and proactive in addressing them to foster a more connected and supportive work environment.
Social isolation and loneliness are critical public health issues recognized by the World Health Organisation, affecting individuals across all age groups, but certain populations are particularly at risk. Vulnerable groups include adolescents, who may face social isolation due to bullying and social media influences; older adults, who often experience isolation due to health decline and loss of loved ones; and those with chronic health conditions or sensory impairments, which can limit social interaction. Additionally, racial and ethnic minorities, LGBTQ+ individuals, men, homeless persons, and those with low socioeconomic status face heightened vulnerability to social isolation. Recognizing these at-risk groups and their challenges is vital for developing effective interventions to mitigate the negative impacts of social isolation on mental and physical health.

In other words, many individuals facing social isolation go unnoticed as they withdraw from meaningful relationships, leading to feelings of loneliness. Research indicates that the need to belong is a fundamental human drive, and chronic social isolation can result in serious mental health issues. While social isolation involves a lack of connections, social death occurs when a person is no longer recognized by society due to extreme neglect or exclusion. Understanding these differences is crucial, as these phenomena can severely impact an individual's identity and well-being. Recognizing the signs of social isolation, such as avoidance of social interactions and disengagement, is essential for preventing further deterioration of mental and emotional health.